65, 699719 (2015). Knowledge does not protect against illusory truth. This illusory truth effect arises because people use peripheral cues such as familiarity (a signal that a message has been encountered before)36, processing fluency (a signal that a message is either encoded or retrieved effortlessly)37,38 and cohesion (a signal that the elements of a message have references in memory that are internally consistent)39 as signals for truth, and the strength of these cues increases with repetition. However, difficulties discerning true from false news headlines can also arise from intuitive (or lazy) thinking rather than the impact of worldviews48. Journal. Nat. We will update you as we know more.. & Graves, L. Correcting political and consumer misperceptions: the effectiveness and effects of rating scale versus contextual correction formats. However, debunking will not eliminate the influence of misinformation on peoples reasoning at a group level. Hum. Eur. Koch, A. S. & Forgas, J. P. Feeling good and feeling truth: the interactive effects of mood and processing fluency on truth judgments. We provide guidance on countering misinformation, including educational and pre-emptive interventions, refutations and psychologically informed technological solutions. However, these concerns are largely overstated. 4). The emotional content of the information shared also affects false-belief formation. 22, 225232 (2013). Graeupner, D. & Coman, A. Fazio, L. K., Brashier, N. M., Payne, B. K. & Marsh, E. J. Correspondence to Harv. Psychol. Sci.Commun. 65, 619638 (2015). The psychological drivers of misinformation belief and its resistance to correction, https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-021-00006-y. Module 9: Prejudice - Principles of Social Psychology - Open Text WSU & Krause, N. M. Science audiences misinformation, and fake news. The spreading of misinformation online. Both of these complementary theoretical accounts of the CIE can explain the superiority of detailed refutations over retractions92,112,113. Please refrain from coming to the campuses while we are evacuated as we are unable to check out any students. USA 114, 1271412719 (2017). Political. Soc. Misinformation corrections might be especially important in social media contexts because they can reduce false beliefs not just in the target of the correction but among everyone that sees the correction a process termed observational correction119. Psychology Today: Health, Help, Happiness + Find a Therapist Discrediting in a message board forum: the effects of social support and attacks on expertise and trustworthiness. Kennedy Sch. Chang, E. P., Ecker, U. K. H. & Page, A. C. Not wallowing in misery retractions of negative misinformation are effective in depressive rumination. Soc. Cognit. Behav. Harv. Because social media algorithms promote content that is likely to be shared, the interplay of psychological tendencies and technological optimization can thus easily lead to viral spread of misinformation online. 2a). 27, 396403 (2021). Prasad, M. et al. on Introduction; L.K.F. & Bucy, E. P. Conferring resistance to digital disinformation: the inoculating influence of procedural news knowledge. 46, 441517 (2002). Specifically, three types of ostensible backfire effects have been discussed: the overkill backfire effect, the familiarity backfire effect, and the worldview backfire effect89. Only one study has investigated the potential overkill backfire effect, thought to result from a correction using too many counterarguments. Science 359, 10941096 (2018). Walter, N. & Tukachinsky, R. A meta-analytic examination of the continued influence of misinformation in the face of correction: how powerful is it, why does it happen, and how to stop it? Micallef, N., Avram, M., Menczer, F. & Patil, S. Fakey. This theory further assumes that as the amount of integrated correct information increases, memory for the correction becomes stronger, at the expense of memory for the misinformation102. Poon, K.-T., Chen, Z. A subsequent correction that the information about vaccine-caused deaths was inaccurate will also be added to memory and is likely to result in some knowledge revision. For example, for online news items, a logo banner specifying the publisher (for example, a reputable media outlet or a dubious web page) has been found not to decrease belief in fake news or increase belief in factual news63. Educ. J. Am. Practitioners can also help audiences discriminate between facts and opinion, which is a teachable skill170,219. What is affect believed to be a component of? Begg, I. M., Anas, A. psyarxiv https://psyarxiv.com/6pv5c/ (2021). The Jewish War: Goebbels and the antisemitic campaigns of the Nazi propaganda ministry. Psychology Today: Health, Help, Happiness + Find a Therapist Ithisuphalap, J., Rich, P. R. & Zaragoza, M. S. Does evaluating belief prior to its retraction influence the efficacy of later corrections? Personal. arxiv https://arxiv.org/abs/2008.00049 (2020). Thus, a thorough and accessible explanation of facts should overcome the impact of misinformation. However, these findings have not been replicated107,289 or remain unpublished. Soc. 50, 755769 (2006). Cynthia previously covered elections, the historic 2021 Texas winter storm, and other news in East Texas. Fazio, L. K., Rand, D. G. & Pennycook, G. Repetition increases perceived truth equally for plausible and implausible statements. Thus, both the interconnectedness and the amount of correct information can influence the success of memory revision. Debunking emphasizes responding to specific misinformation after exposure to demonstrate why it is false. J. Pers. A., Gignac, G. E. & Ecker, U. K. H. Working memory capacity, removal efficiency and event specific memory as predictors of misinformation reliance. Unkelbach, C. & Speckmann, F. Mere repetition increases belief in factually true COVID-19-related information. Altay, S., Araujo, Ede & Mercier, H. If this account is true, it is most enormously wonderful: interestingness-if-true and the sharing of true and false news. Discourse 10, 431437 (2020). Psychol. For example, if a fire was thought to have been caused by negligence, then providing a causal alternative (there is evidence for arson) is more effective than a retraction (there was no negligence). Nat. People are likely to have encountered conspiracy theories about the source of the virus multiple times, which might have contributed to this widespread belief because simply repeating a claim makes it more believable than presenting it only once34,35. Instead, misinformation and corrective information coexist and compete for activation. psyarxiv https://psyarxiv.com/3s4nr/ (2020). Those reputation costs are real over half of social media users report that they have stopped following someone who posted made-up news and information280. & Boekel, M. V. Knowledge revision through the lenses of the three-pronged approach. Pennycook, G. & Rand, D. G. Lazy, not biased: susceptibility to partisan fake news is better explained by lack of reasoning than by motivated reasoning. 64, 93132 (2016). Reas. 64, 283310 (2011). S. & Budenz, A. Commun. PLoS ONE 12, e0181640 (2017). USA 118, e2100280118 (2021). & Abdel, R. R. Emotional news affects social judgments independent of perceived media credibility. Kendeou, P., Walsh, E. K., Smith, E. R. & OBrien, E. J. Behav. Psychol. Conroe ISD released the following statement: Out of an abundance of caution, Oak Ridge High School and Oak Ridge High School 9th Grade Campus have evacuated the buildings due to a phoned-in report of bombs planted somewhere in the school. Thus, while engaged with content, individuals should slow down, think about why they are engaging and interrogate their visceral response. Although some researchers have argued that familiarity backfire might occur when a correction spreads novel misinformation to new audiences185, only one study has found support for this claim (and only in one of two experiments)291, with other studies finding no evidence112,151,222. Zhang, J., Featherstone, J. D., Calabrese, C. & Wojcieszak, M. Effects of fact-checking social media vaccine misinformation on attitudes toward vaccines. 55, 120131 (2020). J. Thus, the cognitive impacts of other types of misinformation, including subtler types of misdirection such as paltering (misleading while technically saying the truth)95,264,265,266, doctored images267, deepfake videos268 and extreme patterns of misinformation bombardment223, are currently not well understood. Margolin, D. B., Hannak, A. Misinformation Rev. 111, 3654 (2020). Learn. Which emotional term is defined as a person's immediate, physiological response to a stimulus? After the initial identification of those stations, personnel from RSD, DPS Criminal Investigations Division (CID) and the Texas Highway Patrol (THP) conducted surveillance and made numerous arrests. Memory Cogn. Illusory truth can persist months after first exposure44, regardless of cognitive ability45 and despite contradictory advice from an accurate source46 or accurate prior knowledge18,47. Educ. & Reifler, J. Lewandowsky, S. & Oberauer, K. Motivated rejection of science. Sci. 8, 855863 (2020). Sci. Behav. An angry mood can also boost misinformation sharing82. 29, 749760 (2018). Sci. Butterfuss, R. & Kendeou, P. Reducing interference from misconceptions: the role of inhibition in knowledge revision. Family, twin, and adoption . Shtulman, A. Misinformation helped bring Roman emperors to power8, who used messages on coins as a form of mass communication9, and Nazi propaganda heavily relied on the printed press, radio and cinema10. Cogn. Rich, J. in Private and Public Lies. Stud. Scientist 65, 825846 (2021). J. Mem. J. Commun. & Maibach, E. Scientific agreement can neutralize politicization of facts. MacFarlane, D., Tay, L. Q., Hurlstone, M. J. Natl Acad. Nature 465, 686687 (2010). N. Media Soc. 10, 241247 (2021). Copyright 2023 by KPRC Click2Houston - All rights reserved. Political Mark. Psychol. J. Cognit. Trevors, G. The roles of identity conflict, emotion, and threat in learning from refutation texts on vaccination and immigration. USA 116, 76627669 (2019). Exp. 18, 429434 (2007). 48, 127144 (2020). Animal rescue officials in Houston are asking for the public's help in tracking down whoever owned a severely emaciated dog . Health Commun. The effect of news labels on perceived credibility. Corrections do not generally increase false beliefs among individuals who were previously unfamiliar with the misinformation222. The long fuse: misinformation and the 2020 election. In this Review, we describe the cognitive, social and affective factors that lead people to form or endorse misinformed views, and the psychological barriers to knowledge revision after misinformation has been corrected, including theories of continued influence. Psychol. Sci. 47, 3346 (2019). All authors commented on and revised the entire manuscript before submission. Res. No actually it was a technical fault: processing corrections of emotive information. Proc. One non-peer reviewed preprint suggests that some people share hostile political rumours and conspiracy theories to incite chaos; this desire to watch the world burn is even stronger following social exclusion285. Misinformation Rev. BMJ Glob. https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-001 (2020). Murphy, G., Loftus, E. F., Grady, R. H., Levine, L. J. J. Consum. Appl. Int. The responsibility of social media in times of societal and political manipulation. Mem. Educ. Lancet 395, 676 (2020). Think. & Stuckler, D. Systematic literature review on the spread of health-related misinformation on social media. Ullrich K. H. Ecker. Memory Cogn. J. Appl. Direct. Memory Cogn. Is Depression Genetic? - Verywell Health However, the information deficit model ignores the cognitive, social and affective drivers of attitude formation and truth judgements18,19,20. Behav. Moreover, according to a preprint that has not been peer-reviewed, happy thoughts are more believable than neutral ones71. 1, 873880 (2017). Commun. Br. Implic. Arata, N. B., Torneo, A. R. & Contreras, A. P. Partisanship, political support, and information processing among President Rodrigo Dutertes supporters and non-supporters. Ecker, U. K. H., Lewandowsky, S. & Apai, J. Does media literacy help identification of fake news? 33, 122139 (2018). Res. Platform values and democratic elections: how can the law regulate digital disinformation? Psychological targeting as an effective approach to digital mass persuasion. Sci. Proc. The power of the truth bias: false information affects memory and judgment even in the absence of distraction. Multiple people, including 2 DPS employees, arrested - Click2Houston Psychol. 3). For example, some individuals deny the existence of climate change or reject vaccinations despite being aware of a scientific consensus to the contrary21,22. Barari, S., Lucas, C. & Munger, K. Political deepfakes are as credible as other fake media and (sometimes) real media. However, this fact is insufficient to explain the rise of misinformation, and its subsequent influence on memory and decision-making, as a major challenge in the twenty-first century2,3,4. Because one element of inoculation is highlighting misleading argumentation techniques, its effects can generalize across topics, providing an umbrella of protection159,160. Med. J. Exp. Bull. 6, 57 (2021). Human Factors Computing Systems 26882700 (ACM, 2021). For example, misinformation that a vaccine has caused an unexpectedly large number of deaths might be incorporated with knowledge related to diseases, vaccinations and causes of death. The psychological drivers of misinformation belief and its resistance to correction. An investigation into the impact of retraction source credibility on the continued influence effect. Sci. Sci. Clim. Prejudice and discrimination. Soc. Mem. Houston Pets Alive! Moreover, just as a sad mood can protect against initial misinformation belief80, it also seems to facilitate knowledge revision when a correction is encountered138. Mackie, D. M., Worth, L. T. & Asuncion, A. G. Processing of persuasive in-group messages. & Lazer, D. Public health and online misinformation: challenges and recommendations. Broadcasting Electron. 15, 84113 (2021). & Ecker, U. K. H. Refuting spurious COVID-19 treatment claims reduces demand and misinformation sharing. And, they have three components: an affective component (feelings), a behavioral component (the effect of the attitude on behavior), and a cognitive component (belief and knowledge) (Rosenberg & Hovland, . Sci. J. Cognit. Mediat. While we do not believe the threat to be credible, the Conroe ISD Police Department is bringing in explosives K-9s to search the building. The authentic appeal of the lying demagogue: proclaiming the deeper truth about political illegitimacy. Susceptibility to misinformation about COVID-19 around the world. on Drivers of false beliefs; P.K. Sci. The refutation can be fact-based, logic-based or source-based. Ecker, U. K. H., Lewandowsky, S., Jayawardana, K. & Mladenovic, A. Refutations of equivocal claims: no evidence for an ironic effect of counterargument number. Reason. Curr. 42, 6274 (2016). Sci. The impact of reading format and culture on the continued influence of misinformation. To obtain 5. 4, 160802 (2017). Theory 31, 121 (2020). The misinformation can be retrieved without the false tag, but the false tag cannot be retrieved without concurrent retrieval of the misinformation. 92, 381387 (2013). Lazi, A. More commonly, people tend to trust sources that are perceived to share their values and worldviews54,55. Psychol. Psychol. The simplest prebunking interventions involve presenting factually correct information149,150, a pre-emptive correction142,151 or a generic misinformation warning99,148,152,153 before the misinformation. The Dangers of Compelled Belief Brownstone Institute A., Feinberg, G. D. & Maibach, E. W. How to communicate the scientific consensus on climate change: plain facts, pie charts or metaphors? This effect is characterized as an increase in misinformation belief following a correction, relative to a pre-correction baseline or no-exposure control condition. In this Review, we describe the cognitive, social and affective processes that make misinformation stick and leave people vulnerable to the formation of false beliefs. Posted September 20, 2021 | Reviewed by Ekua Hagan Key points Unlike. Roozenbeek, J. et al. Discourse Process. Information consumers also have a role to play in combatting misinformation by avoiding contributing to its spread. 27, 223233 (2012). 4, 11021109 (2020). Pantazi, M., Kissine, M. & Klein, O. Tully, M., Vraga, E. K. & Bode, L. Designing and testing news literacy messages for social media. Res. In sum, debunking is a valuable tool to address specific pieces of misinformation and largely reduces misinformation belief. Res. Emot. Emotion can be persuasive because it distracts readers from potentially more diagnostic cues, such as source credibility. The district said it does not believe the threat is credible, but police are still investigating the case. Psychol. 32, 771784 (2020). All students and staff were taken outside and are safe. In this space, policymakers should consider enhanced regulation. Cogn. Cogn. Med. 28, 15311546 (2017). A 2022 study looked at the lungs of people much younger than 50 who smoked both tobacco and cannabis and found 75% had emphysema, a disease of the small airways that causes damage to the air sacs . https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-56 (2021). Science 359, 11461151 (2018). PubMed Digit. J. Commun. Merpert, A., Furman, M., Anauati, M. V., Zommer, L. & Taylor, I. Misinformation has been identified as a contributor to various contentious events, ranging from elections and referenda5 to political or religious persecution6 and to the global response to the COVID-19 pandemic7. However, lack of access to high-quality information is not necessarily the primary precursor to false-belief formation; a range of cognitive, social and affective factors influence the formation of false beliefs (Fig. It is, therefore, important to scrutinize whether the practices and algorithms of media platforms are optimized to promote misinformation or truth. 1, 1600008 (2017). Res. 3.2 Conscience as a faculty for direct moral knowledge. 57, 1369613697 (2018). Sci. Politics Res. Gen. 147, 18651880 (2018). Dis. Mood b. The Debunking Handbook 2020 (George Mason Univ., 2020). 45, 304331 (2017). Psychol. Ultimately, even if practitioners and information consumers apply all of these strategies to reduce the impact of misinformation, their efforts will be stymied if media platforms continue to amplify misinformation14,16,208,209,210,211,212,213. 68, 487501 (2013). Stanley, M. L., Barr, N., Peters, K. & Seli, P. Analytic-thinking predicts hoax beliefs and helping behaviors in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Porter, E. & Wood, T. J. & Ecker, U. K. H. Electrophysiological correlates of the continued influence effect of misinformation: an exploratory study. Mem. An initial accuracy focus prevents illusory truth. When preparing to counter misinformation, it is important to identify likely sources. Psychol. J. However, misinformation can often continue to influence peoples thinking even after they receive a correction and accept it as true. Bastani, P. & Bahrami, M. A. COVID-19 related misinformation on social media: a qualitative study from Iran. Chan, M.-P. S., Jones, C. R., Jamieson, K. H. & Albarracn, D. Debunking: a meta-analysis of the psychological efficacy of messages countering misinformation. Natl Acad. Some of the main cognitive (green) and socio-affective (orange) factors that can facilitate the formation of false beliefs when individuals are exposed to misinformation. Sci. DPS strives to maintain the highest level of integrity among its employees and will pursue prosecution for those engaging in any type of criminal activity. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820969893 (2020). Machete, P. & Turpin, M. The use of critical thinking to identify fake news: a systematic literature review. 71, 499515 (2020). Featherstone, J. D. & Zhang, J. J. Cogn. Kennedy Sch. Q. J. Exp. Harv. 12, 921 (2021). on Barriers to belief revision; E.K.V. The European Union, the doctrine's real-world manifestation, named a tower after the 18th-century French nobleman who popularized it. Psychol. PLoS ONE 12, e0175799 (2017). Sci. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2021.1941163 (2021). For example, in the case of anti-vaccination conspiracy theories, prebunking has been found to be more effective than debunking146. Health Commun. Walter, N. & Murphy, S. T. How to unring the bell: a meta-analytic approach to correction of misinformation. https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-009 (2020). Hameleers, M. Separating truth from lies: comparing the effects of news media literacy interventions and fact-checkers in response to political misinformation in the US and Netherlands. Psychological research has built solid foundational knowledge of how people decide what is true and false, form beliefs, process corrections, and might continue to be influenced by misinformation even after it has been corrected. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-021-01232-8 (2021). Sangalang, A., Ophir, Y. Colour shading is used to show how specific strategies are applied in the example corrections. 30, 14491459 (2019). & Ubel, P. A. We use the term misinformation as an umbrella term referring to any information that turns out to be false and reserve the term disinformation for misinformation that is spread with intention to harm or deceive. Commun. Thoughtless sharing can amplify misinformation that might confuse and deceive others. 65, 371388 (2019). (with N.B.) In general, messages are more persuasive and seem more true when they come from sources perceived to be credible rather than non-credible42. The most common type of correction is a fact-based correction that directly addresses inaccuracies in the misinformation and provides accurate information90,102,112,142 (Fig. ISSN 2731-0574 (online). California officials warn 'worst of the storm has yet to come' as 43, 12271246 (2021). Sci. J. Appl. Altay, S., Hacquin, A.-S. & Mercier, H. Why do so few people share fake news? Learn. Commun. Kim, H., Park, K. & Schwarz, N. Will this trip really be exciting? Infect. J. Exp. Lewandowsky, S., Stritzke, W. G. K., Freund, A. M., Oberauer, K. & Krueger, J. I. Misinformation, disinformation, and violent conflict: from Iraq and the war on terror to future threats to peace. Psychol. Nat. Garrett, R. K. The echo chamber distraction: disinformation campaigns are the problem not audience fragmentation.
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